The idea of integrating two or more subjects together in order to enhance the quality of teaching and learning within a school or other educational organisation has become increasingly widespread; indeed, there has been a shift in recent years towards “integrated learning” and the provision of holistic rather than atomistic curricula (see Drake & Reid 2018; Moss et al. 2019; Leadbetter 2019; also see sySTEAM 2019). The combination of music and language is one example of this integration, and it is evidenced in three large- scale projects funded by the European Union as part of its Lifelong Learning Programme, namely Lullabies of Europe (for pre-school and early learners; Kindersite 2008); FolkDC (for primary learners; Josephson 2011); and PopuLLar (for secondary learners; Up2Europe, 2011). All of these projects effectively use music “to motivate young learners to engage with language learning” (FolkDC 2011). Alongside these practical initiatives, there is a growing body of dedicated research about the integration of music and language in curricula. There are three key findings, each discussed in turn below (for a specific review of the use of songs as pedagogical materials for second language learning, see Ludke 2010): first, music has the potential to increase levels of motivation in language learners; second, music can improve language skills, literacy and comprehension; and third, music develops cultural awareness in language learners.
First, research indicates that music has the potential to increase levels of motivation and engagement in learners, hence helping them to learn more effectively (Eady & Wilson, 2004). Schellenberg (2006) suggests that listening to music is enjoyable so it can lead to emotional arousal which, in turn, increases interest in learning materials and enhances spatio-temporal faculties. Other research indicates that engaging with music can enhance learners’ self-esteem and creativity. For example, in a study about language learning through songs in primary schools, Israel (2013) revealed that learners became more ambitious in group discussion, written and speaking tasks through singing non-native poems and converting them into raps. In effect, music turned the learning environment into a positive, relaxed and learner-friendly space, motivating individuals to fulfil their creative potential and bringing them together regardless of socio- cultural background (also see Spicher & Sweeney 2007; Ludke & Weinmann 2012). The findings of these studies support the affective filter hypothesis (Krashen 1982).
Second, a number of studies show that music, especially songs, can help to improve language skills, literacy and comprehension. Failoni (1993) and Ludke (2010) contend that songs have the potential to facilitate language learners in all areas of the curriculum, including listening, speaking, reading and writing. Moreover, they maintain that the study of song lyrics assists with the development of language literacy and comprehension by reinforcing grammar, sentence patterns and pronunciation. Failoni (1993) recommends a broad range of songs for inclusion in language learning, from children’s songs to popular, classical, and contemporary music.
There are, of course, overlaps between language and music (Horn 2007): they share similar ingredients, including tones, pitch, timbre and rhythm (as discussed above), plus both subjects involve communication and social interaction. Oates and Grayson (2004) usefully describe the four main aspects of language – phonology (the study of the sounds of the language); morphology (the study of the words of a language and how they are formed); syntax (the system that determines how words are arranged to make sentences); and semantics (the study of meaning) – and claim that incorporating song lyrics into second language acquisition supports all of these aspects because they provide learners with access to words and phrases with relatable meanings (also see Taylor, 1981; Mora, 2000). Bartle (1962) suggests that songs should be used especially to teach grammar, for he believes that they assist with the memorisation of phrase constructions because lyrics are more easily learned than regular grammatical examples. The role of music in helping learners to remember words of phrases in language learning is also emphasised elsewhere in research (see, for example, Failoni, 1993; Ludke, 2010).
Richards (1969) highlights five specific ways in which songs can inform language leaning: they can teach
1) sounds;
2) rhythm and stress;
3) sentence patterns and syntax;
4) formulae for conversations;
5) vocabulary.
He warns, however, that songs can also “unteach” (p. 163) because song words can be different from native words and they may also place stress on syllables which are normally unstressed in speech. Interestingly, he argues that “what we need are specially written songs and songs which have been adapted for learners” (p. 164). To this end, Ludke (2010) indicates that there are five properties of songs that are “especially likely to support verbal learning” (p. 11):
· Simple and predictable song structures, such as verse and chorus;
· Symmetrical melodic lines, such as a rise then fall in pitch;
· Songs or phrases in which the end leads naturally back to the beginning;
· Rhyme schemes within lyrics;
· Songs without too much new vocabulary or grammar.
The idea of the development of newly-composed or adapted songs for language learning that contain the above properties is vital in relation to the design of the Mandarin Singing Curriculum.
Recommended approaches for developing language literacy and comprehension include completing lyric- based tasks, using word cards to memorise familiar and well-liked songs, creating new lyrics for songs with peers or teachers as well as assessing language performance through music and singing (Richards 1969; Failoni 1993). Lyric-based tasks that may be used to develop writing skills include translating lyrics, determining whether lyrics are true or false, completing spelling games based on texts, identifying grammatical components (such as adjectives, nouns, homonyms, synonyms and so on) and writing summaries of song content. For reading, Rivers (1987) maintains that different strategies can be used to help students develop their skills based upon the premise that learners read what they can say and thus rely upon “sound-symbol” correspondence. For example, learners can read song lyrics, fill in missing words from song texts, change nouns with personalised names or places, translate lines, spell appointed words and answer questions about the song lines. To check comprehension, learners can mark the frequency of words upon listening to songs, fill in missing words, or order lists of words as they are heard. In order to improve pronunciation, learners can use rhythms and melodies to help remember correct pronunciations, repeat words synchronously with songs or even create new lyrics for existing tunes, lyrical rhythms and song rhymes (Failoni, 1993; Ludke 2010; also see Ginsborg 2017). For speaking skills, learners can practise reciting lyrics aloud or make up conversations based on the dialogues contained within songs.
Third, researchers have found that music can contribute towards the development of cultural awareness or intercultural competence in language learners through access to song texts and global musical styles or genres (Shayakhmetova et al. 2017). Songs, in particular, provide a lens into a culture. For instance, music texts often reveal authentic expressions or emotions of people within their daily lives and, as such, song texts may reflect historical, political, personal or other themes about a particular community or society (Christenson 2018). Songs, therefore, provide language learners with a way to understand the lives of those living in the target country. At the same time, songs reflect cultural differences in their style, which may be defined by the choice of musical instruments, melodic, harmonic, rhythmic or other components (see Van Kranenburg & Backe 2004). In many ways, music provides a medium for learners to explore another culture, communicate their feelings about non-native cultures, find out about cultural differences and familiarities in order to improve their cultural awareness.
In general, then, researchers have found that music can transform language classrooms into positive learning environments so learners can thrive academically, socially, emotionally and culturally. Four studies merit attention as they provide insight into the holistic benefits of integrating music and language in learning environments (in chronological order).
First, in a project about teaching Japanese to English language learners, Jolly (1975) revealed that using songs was beneficial because they livened up the pace of lessons, eliminated boredom and helped children to gain awareness of different language idioms.
Second, Lowe (2002) conducted a programme of integrated learning in music and language across three primary school classrooms and noted the following points regarding its successful delivery. First, it is important for both teachers and learners to maintain a positive attitude, including being supportive, respectful and flexible. Second, a specialist music teacher is necessary to provide appropriate learning materials and they may provide valuable training for classroom teachers in delivering sessions. Third, learners developed insights into both language and music, including understanding words, phrases, grammar and the moral story of fables as well as about musical form and style. Fourth, learners progressed in their ability to play instruments along with other creative pursuits as part of the integrated experience. Finally, learners also developed self-motivation skills as well as their abilities to work independently, problem-solve and think critically.
Third, Ludke (2010) carried out one of the most extensive research enquiries into teaching foreign languages through songs (also see Ludke & Weinmann 2012). Her work resulted in the design of a workbook containing 10 activity sessions that could be used as a framework to deliver language lessons with songs. The workbook sessions included: introduction (finding a song), learning vocabulary, learning grammar, listening comprehension, speaking skills, reading skills, writing skills, learning culture, and singing a song. Samples of songs were provided for various target languages at the end of the workbook, including English, French, German, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. Interestingly, no song examples were provided for Mandarin due to it being difficult to “find any Chinese folk songs” (p. 439).
Fourth, Kao (2014) developed a three-step learner-centred approach to using hip-hop music in language acquisition. The first step is to choose a favourite piece of hip-hop and listen to it over and over again until it becomes very familiar. The second step requires learners to analyse the material, decipher the lyrics and create a summary of the musical content. The third step is to learn about the culture behind the song, including its background, the artist and genre. These steps enabled learners to choose and collaborate with their future learning materials, self-evaluate their own progress and reportedly made their learning highly enjoyable.
Rational of Designing a Singing Curriculum
Following a review of existing literature in the areas of music and language teaching, six guidelines have been identified for designing a second language singing curriculum. These can be summarised as: meaning; difficulty; students' taste; familiarity; text-melody matching; authentic music.
First, the second language should be stimulated meaningfully. According to Conti & Smith (2016), students should have opportunities to practice orally with teachers and other students. Students enjoy singing songs with topics closely aligned with their daily lives. Furthermore, second language songs’ lyrics should be closely aligned with students’ daily lives to enable the children to practice orally with teachers and each other.
Second, the songs should be of an appropriate level of difficulty, taking into consideration the support available to students. Songs just a little beyond the current proficiency level are worth considering (Conti& Smith, 2016). Conti & Smith also suggest providing students with songs that are full of imagination, with sufficient challenge but not frustrating them. One of the responsibilities of the teacher is to identify songs of an appropriate level of difficulty for students of different ages. For example, Primary school children may enjoy children’s songs or even lullabies. Secondary school children may already know recent popular songs from the targeted language country, and many of them enjoy singing popular songs beyond their language capacity. Within this age group, students often enjoy some freedom of choice about what to learn, but it is worth bearing in mind that many popular choices have complex sentence patterns, which can become frustrating for students. The challenge for teachers is to find the balance between students’ enthusiasm and the difficulty of the language in the songs to challenge students intellectually, emotionally and musically.
Third, it is important to produce songs that cater to students’ tastes. A listener’s taste in music depends largely on musical characteristics such as tempo, rhythm, pitch, melody and vocal vibrato (Gosselin, 2015). Students over seven prefer fast-tempo to slow-tempo songs (LeBlanc, 1981; LeBlanc & McCrary, 1983; Fung, 1994; Demorest & Schultz, 2004). Students from elementary schools have been found to make negative comments in response to music in a foreign language (LeBlanc, 1981; Demorest & Schultz, 2004; Abril & Gault, 2006), with English-speaking students often preferring songs sung with English translation instead of the original languages (Gosselin, 2017).
Fourth, students show a higher preference for familiar songs than unfamiliar songs (Siebenaler, 1999), mirroring established links between familiarity and musical preferences in listening to music (Hargreaves & North, 2008). Preference is important: according to Kirkham, Wang and Ma (2010), students find the process of learning a song less effortful if the experience is enjoyable. It is widely believed by language researchers and music educators that the process of learning and remembering information can be facilitated by setting the information to music (Siebenaler, 1999; Rainey & Larsen, 2002; Ludke, 2009; Villodre, 2014). This is supported by both general experience and empirical evidence. Adults, when hearing a tune, can recall the words that they heard once as teenagers, despite not having heard the words for a long time (Rainey & Larsen, 2002). In a naturalistic study (Calvert & Tart, 1993), students were asked to remember the preamble to the Constitution, and the results showed that the students who used the singing strategy rather than a spoken strategy recalled a greater number of words verbatim than those students who used the spoken retrieval strategy, both in the short- and long- term conditions. Kind (1980) created a method to help remove part of the “fear of the unknown” element of learning a new language using a familiar melody. Siebenaler (1999) indicates that familiarity with songs positively affected students’ engagement with the music. A good paradigm for using familiar melodies is to use nursery rhymes to create second-language songs. Nursery rhymes are a useful tool for children to develop musical values not only because of their familiarity, but also because of their compositional characteristics: they are often relatively simple in terms of rhythm, melody, and harmony (Tan, 2023). Villodre (2014) contends that using nursery rhymes could ensure children understand their own culture and recognise the cultural characteristics of other cultures. In using popular nursery rhymes, students are invited to think about their own culture, especially if these nursery rhymes are to some extent, shared internationally (Villodre, 2014). Nursery rhymes are effective in developing intercultural awareness because the content facilitates motor activities, specific linguistic skills and cultural comprehension simultaneously (Villodre, 2014). Young children enjoy nursery rhymes because they are short and use simple language, and the lyrics are easy to understand. Furthermore, many notable nursery rhymes are shared in different parts of the world. This facilitates the use of nursery rhymes as a tool for new language learning and intercultural development.
Fifth, text set to melody should facilitate text recall. The most easily overlooked part in the early stage of creating second language songs is the relationship between syllables and notes. Since each Chinese character has only one syllable, it is widespread for the same character’s duration to last several musical notes in Chinese songs. According to Wallace (1994) and Chen-Hafteck (2006), the degree of text-melody coordination with one another could influence the recollection of the song. Wallace (1994) contends that music could facilitate text recall if the text and melody matched well. Chen-Hafteck (2016) indicates that tone-matched songs were suggested as easier to acquire than tone-mismatched songs. Children may integrate text and melody as a cognitive strategy for processing songs. Wallace (1994) researched the text- melody interaction in English songs and contended that the degree to which texts and melodies coordinate with one another could influence the recollection of the song. Music could facilitate text recall if the text and melody matched well.
Sixth, and finally, teachers and researchers have claimed that traditional music and folk songs preserve most features of both music and language of the culture, as well as intonation, stress, and rhythmic patterns of the language. So, folk songs could be one kind of material for teachers to use in the second language learning classrooms (Spicher & Sweeney, 2007). Most traditional/ folk songs follow a regularly repeated verse form, with rhyme that makes the songs easy to sing. Behind the melodies, interesting stories are accompanied by traditional folk songs. The lyrics and melodies of folk songs motivate children to know more about the language, and the lyrics of the songs reveal the past time and stories people used to live in. Nevertheless, one of the drawbacks of using folk songs in second language learning is the use of unusual sentence patterns and unfamiliar words, and folk song content may also include difficult or confusing syntax (Martin, 1981).
In sum, songs provided for children learning a second language should be appropriate to their age, their interests, and the students’ needs. Songs that connect to students’ lives, their present understanding, and meet their tastes are appropriate. Using familiar melodies, especially nursery rhymes, could effectively motivate students’ second language learning. Song melodies can help students with text recall, i.e., tone- matched songs are better recalled than tone-mismatched songs for students learning a second language. Folk songs and traditional songs can be excellent learning resources if the teacher uses the materials wisely.